Why Are Civil Service Exams Given As Part Of The Bureaucracy?

The civil service examinations of Royal China immune the land to find the best candidates to staff the vast hierarchy that governed China from the Han Dynasty onwards (206 BCE - 220 CE). The exams were a ways for a young male of any course to enter that bureaucracy and so become a part of the gentry course of scholar-officials. The exams had multiple levels and were extremely difficult to pass, requiring extensive knowledge of Confucian classics, law, government, and oratory amongst other subjects. For the land, the system supplied not merely able candidates who were selected on merit but as well ensured an unabridged class adult which had sympathy with the ruling status quo. The exams were in identify for over a 1000 years and are the principal reason why educational activity is still peculiarly revered in Chinese civilization today.

Chinese Students Taking Civil Service Exams

Yu Ren, Wu Yue (Public Domain)

Historical Evolution

The idea of recruiting officials to staff the imperial bureaucracy developed from the Han Dynasty. An Purple Academy had been established in 124 BCE for scholars to report in depth the Confucian and Taoist classics, and by the end of the Han menses, this institution was training an impressive 30,000 students each year. In general, the state held the view that education was a mark of a civilised social club and in order to go the best administrators to run China'south vast territories efficiently, an unabridged class of scholar ceremonious servants was required. This view would prevail nether varying dynasties right up to the mid-20th century CE. From the early 8th century CE the military had its own split up set of examinations.

The rulers of the Sui Dynasty (581-618 CE), who had once more unified Cathay, were keen to further better and centralise the traditional administration organization fix up past the Han. In that location was at present a much greater emphasis not on an officials' family unit connections and their letters of recommendations from powerful friends but on the abilities demonstrated in their performance in ceremonious service examinations held in the capital. These examinations combined elements from tests used in previous regimes such as questions on government and knowledge of the classics of Chinese literature, peculiarly those on Confucianism.

Extremely testing, only about i% of examinees actually passed, although it was possible to retake the examinations an unlimited number of times.

Emperor Gaozu (r. 618-626 CE), founder of the Tang dynasty (618-906 CE) continued with the same policy and added further refinements such as testing a candidate's speaking skills. The examinations themselves were now more sophisticated with both regularly held ones and special outcome exams to weed out the very best recruits. Now fully established, the ceremonious service examinations tested a young man'due south knowledge of the following:

writing and calligraphy
formal essay writing techniques
classic literature
mathematics
legal matters
regime matters
poetry
clear and coherent speaking

Young men also had to present themselves as 'worthy and upright', and for this reason, certain males were excluded, for example, slaves, actors, criminals, and children of prostitutes.

Examinations were initially organised by the Board of Ceremonious Role and thereafter by the Board of Rites, they were held annually, and they attracted up to 2,000 candidates. Extremely testing, simply most 1% of examinees actually passed, although it was possible to retake the examinations an unlimited number of times. Those who passed then faced some other examination at the Board of Civil Office.

Love History?

Ming Civil Servant Jiang Shunfu

Unknown Artist (Public Domain)

During the Vocal dynasty (960-1279 CE) the examinations were restructured to meet greater demand - five times that seen during the Tang. Now a qualifying examination was imposed to select those candidates more likely to do well in the examinations proper. These pre-tests were usually carried out in the local provinces and by the stop of the dynasty, some 400,000 candidates were sitting them each yr. Successful candidates could then participate in the now three-day examination effect held annually in the capital. Those who passed that examination were invited to sit down another test in the imperial palace. From 973 CE, the emperor himself personally supervised this last circular of exams. There also began in this period certain measures to limit (but certainly not eliminate) corruption such as the introduction of anonymous marking, the employ of a number instead of a candidate's name to avoid bias, and, in the instance of the second and third level exams, even the copying of handwriting by a clerk to disguise who had answered the papers.

As if the prize ticket of a identify in the state apparatus were not enough of an inducement to candidates, there were other benefits, too. Successful candidates were allowed to vesture certain robes which became status symbols in wider society, they were given certain tax benefits, and their new status meant they avoided corporal punishment for some criminal offences. As ever, though, candidates had to exist male person and reasonably well-educated to offset off with. Peasant children who could not write or had no access to scholarly texts had no hazard of bettering their position in society. Indeed, such were the demands of the exams that parents had to spend a good deal of money on individual tutors to become their sons ready for the well-nigh important test of their lives. Candidates were helped past the greater availability of printed books, some of which would be compiled specifically to aid exam-takers.

The special 'scholarly' (jinshi) department was given slap-up weight & it was essential to laissez passer this office to take up senior civil service positions.

When the Mongols ruled Mainland china during the Yuan Dynasty (1276-1368 CE) the exams were first cancelled altogether then reinstated but with quotas based on a candidate's ethnicity - Han Chinese were but immune 25% of the exam places. The civil service examination organisation was fully revived, though, in 1370 CE under the Ming dynasty (1368-1644 CE). Adding their own refinements to the traditional setup of previous Chinese dynasties, the Ming introduced a geographical quota system and so that the richer regions did not, as was previously the case, dominate all the positions in the civil service. Meanwhile, the increase in the number of schools meant children with parents who could non afford individual tuition could now, at least in some areas, receive the essential pedagogy necessary to set up for the exams.

Ming era exams were held every three years - each fall in the provinces, and then each spring in the major cities for level two, then immediately after, level three in the regal palace. There were no limits to the number of candidates until numbers grew to such proportions that a mensurate in 1475 CE limited the candidates to 300 per sitting. There was besides some attending given to the degree with which a candidate passed and in which sections. The special 'scholarly' (jinshi) section was given great weight, and it was essential to pass this part to have upwardly senior civil service positions in a candidate'south future career. Those who got the best marks in the jinshi section could look forward to a plum task in the prestigious Hanlin University, where state documents such every bit new laws and imperial decrees were compiled, checked, and amended. Despite the rise in candidates, success was still relatively low as examiners kept increasing the challenges. During the Ming, only ii-4% of candidates passed the second level exams and 7-nine% the tertiary level.

Commentaries of the Analects of Confucius

AlexHe34 (CC Past)

With the spread of Neo-Confucianism, the Ming Dynasty exams also favoured knowledge of the 'Four Books': Analects of Confucius, Mencius, Groovy Learning, and Doctrine of the Mean. Report of these texts became essential to pass the examinations until their abolition in the 20th century CE. The exams themselves became more than exacting with levels one and two each having iii split parts. Candidates had not only to answer questions but besides write extended essays, intended to allow examiners to assess the political views of candidates, not only their bookish ability. Finally, nether the Ming, successful candidates in the everyman level examination who had not passed the second level had to periodically take tests if they wanted to keep their status.

Under the Qing dynasty (1644-1911 CE) still some other layer of complication was added to the exam arrangement. An examination for younger boys, which they had to laissez passer in order to be eligible to take the level one regional civil service examination, was introduced. Although aimed at developing the skills of younger boys, a male of any age had to have passed this exam before proceeding further through the organization. The Qing also added some other level at the other finish of this academic obstruction course. At present candidates who passed the level three palace exam had to practice yet another written test, this time set by the emperor himself. The good news was that success in this final paper meant an immediate senior appointment.

A Student'due south View

The practical implication of such a challenging series of exams was that young boys had to start learning early if they were to have any chance at all of ultimate success. Individual tuition from the historic period of four or five ensured they learnt how to read and write in archetype Chinese, which was different from everyday spoken Chinese. Classic Confucian texts had to be memorised if not actually fully understood. Calligraphy skills had to be developed to give a pleasing impression on the first level exams (the other levels had copyists for impartiality as mentioned higher up). Sound knowledge of China's history was some other good foundation to acquire at this stage. Next, they had to acquire the skills of the 'eight-legged' essay, a formalised presentation of ideas with set phrases and structure needed for some of the exam responses.

Closer to the exam, students swatted up on the one classic text they could cull to be tested on in depth (they would be tested on others, as well) also as brushing upwards their essay writing skills on practical policy problems of the twenty-four hours. For the second and third level exams, a knowledge of imperial edicts, government decrees, and judicial rulings was essential equally they would be tested on their ability to draft such official documents.

Chinese Examination Cells

Dr Meierhofer (CC By-SA)

Come up exam day in the provinces, all candidates sat in a hall or courtyard of a local government office. The all-solar day event (repeated twice within a week), was an important one in the community, with stalls existence set upwards to sell food and family and well-wishers gazing on from exterior. The second level exams in the cities were spread over a calendar week. Candidates had to present themselves the week earlier the bodily exams with all their paperwork in society (although there was still the odd case of students sending a more able substitute), suit their accommodation, and make sure they had all the necessary brushes, ink, and paper they would need. Indeed, expected to stay closeted in individual exam cells, they as well needed food, candles, and blankets. A cell had an open front so invigilators could check upwards on everyone. Inside was a number of plain wooden boards to make a desk and seat or a bed. Here, each candidate would spend three days taking the exam. Before entering, each candidate was searched and anyone caught cheating was thrown out, banned from taking the examination the side by side fourth dimension it was held, and in some cases, stripped of the certificate they had gained at level one.

The writer Pu Sung-ling (d. 1715 CE) gives the following bright account of what information technology was like to sit such an exam:

When he offset enters the examination compound and walks along, panting under his heavy load of baggage, he is just like a ragamuffin. Next, while under-going the personal body search and being scolded by the clerks and shouted at past the soldiers, he is but like a prisoner. When he finally enters his cell and, forth with the other candidates, stretches his cervix to peer out, he is just like the larva of a bee. When the exam is finished at terminal and he leaves, his listen in a haze and his legs tottering, he is but like a sick bird that has been released from a cage.

(quoted in Dawson, 35)

Once collected, the papers were checked, copied, and presented to the examiners who by and large gave out the results within 20 days. Those who passed were invited to a special banquet with the examiners. Those who failed would invariably try again next fourth dimension. The average historic period of successful candidates was around 30, with those passing the third level palace exam perhaps beingness 40 years of age.

Social Impact

The civil service examinations system had several important effects on Chinese club. The very idea that ability was more important than 1'southward family unit connections and social groundwork was a radical idea that stirred in people of all types the realisation that one did not have to follow the aforementioned life and piece of work of one'south parents. There were limited places, fifty-fifty more limited jobs at the finish of the procedure, and one needed a basic educational activity to brainstorm with (non to mention one had to be male, also), but there was, at to the lowest degree for some, a possible pathway to social progression.

Imperial Chinese Examination Hall — Regal Chinese Examination Hall

Xiu Yang (Public Domain)

A side issue of the exam organisation based on merit was a reduction in the grip on power and wealth held by the hereditary aristocracy. There was, besides, a reduction in the potential for corruption by replacing the old system where local officials appointed their ain subordinates based on family connections and bribes rather than merit (although high-ranking officials could nonetheless circumvent the test arrangement and nominate people for low positions correct through the history of Imperial Red china). Another side consequence of creating this desire to join the scholar-official class was the creation of a compliant section of society who shared common values, one of which was to preserve the system they aspired to bring together and actively participate in. A primal principle of Confucianism was, after all, a sense of duty. Finally, equally those taking the exams had to move dandy distances to practise and so and, if successful their civil service date could exist anywhere, at least ane section of society became more than mobile, standing the general trend of sections of the population moving from rural to urban communities.

At that place were several negative consequences to the arrangement, also. Many of those who repeatedly took the exams but failed concluded up as frustrated teachers helping other hopefuls or were obliged to find positions as junior clerks, sometimes unpaid. The whole uniformity of the examinations systems encouraged conformity rather than new thinking. In addition, as with any organization based exclusively on examinations which hardly ever changed in scope, those who were successful were the ones who all-time studied how to pass rather than those who best understood the subjects they were questioned on.

The examination arrangement was imitated in other Asian countries, notably in Japan, Korea, and Vietnam. Nevertheless, as the medieval period wore on and scientific advancements were fabricated elsewhere, particularly in the West, China did lag behind equally the exams arrangement emphasised cognition of classic literature and the cultivation of moral sensibility rather than of scientific and technical subjects. For this reason, afterwards a thousand years and having go office of the very fabric of Chinese public life, the Qing abolished the ceremonious service exams organisation in 1905 CE. Its legacy remains, though, in the particularly high regard, indeed, almost reverence with which education is held in Chinese culture today.

This article has been reviewed for accuracy, reliability and adherence to academic standards prior to publication.